|
Intelligence - Teaching and Parenting
What Makes A Difference?
 By Robert Moon, Ph.D.
What Is Intelligence? (Part 1)
Revised and Copyright 2002
One would be hard-pressed to find when educators first began discussing what is
intelligence and what affects it. Binet’s first attempt to measure intelligence not only increased the debate over this question but added the new question, how does one
measure intelligence? The complexity of these questions is illustrated by examining the many differences in the many various types of intelligence tests. An examination of
well-known intelligence tests identified 17 factors which were evaluated:
|
1. Following directions
|
9. Memory of form
|
|
2. Ideation memory
|
10. Analogies
|
|
3. Vocabulary
|
11. Number series
|
|
4. Space perception
|
12. Aesthetic judgment
|
|
5. Memory of numbers
|
13. Drawing
|
|
6. Memory of sentences
|
14. Abstract reasoning
|
|
7. Memory of stories
|
15. Completion
|
|
8. Abstract ideas and thinking abstractly
|
16. Reorganization
|
|
|
17. Integrating new experiences
( Blair Et al., 1975: 45:3)
|
|
The complexity of measuring intelligence is further illustrated by the fact that J. P.
Guilford’s model of intelligence identified 120 factors, while most intelligence tests usually measure no more than eight or nine. (Guilford, 1966: 21)
It is doubtful that the debate concerning what is intelligence, and how it can be
measured, will ever end. Further, while teachers might be interested in speculating about these questions, the real question teachers want answered is, What knowledge
concerning intelligence can help me be a better teacher and help my students do better in school - - what makes a difference? The purpose of this discussion is to examine the
knowledge concerning the nature of intelligence that can help teachers and parents to understand how to maximize their students success.
To accomplish this purpose, this discussion has been divided into several major
sections. The first briefly examines the question of what is intelligence and chooses a working definition felt to be particularly useful in planning help. Other sections examine
selected research and case studies felt particularly pertinent to helping teachers\parents understand intelligence in a way that will assist children to more
effectively meet their potential. What makes a difference?
What is Intelligence?
The purpose of this section is to provide background for a definition which has been
selected to assist in studying how knowledge of intelligence can help teachers/parents assist children in meeting their potential.
Some psychologists would suggest, perhaps with tongue in cheek, that intelligence is
what intelligence tests test. Others might suggest that it is academic aptitude, while others might go into a lengthy definition about the numerous factors that affect intelligence and how few we measure.
The major concern of society is, how well does the person function in that society? If
one were to use this rationale, one might define intelligence as the ability of an individual to function effectively in his environment. A casual consideration of this
definition would tend to suggest that it has some merit.
In some possible environments an effectively functioning individual might have few of
the factors most psychologists associated with intelligence. For example, a gladiator who survived during the period of the Roman Empire primarily because of his very
superior strength, might be classified as very effective in his environment. He, however, might be classified by most psychologists as having only average or even borderline defective intelligence.
Others might attempt to relate intelligence to the ability to think, to memorize, to do
unusual cognitive feats, etc. One can imagine a person who might be a brilliant mathematician and whom most psychologists would classify as very intelligent,
attempting to function during the Middle Ages as a knight. If he failed to have the physical attributes necessary he might be very ineffective and short-lived in that environment.
Weschler (1944:3) defines intelligence as “
intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.” This
definition represents a compromise which considers both a person’s ability to function in his environment and his ability to think rationally and use this in purposeful action.
Cooper and Sawaf (1997:iii) define Emotional Intelligence as follows: Emotional Intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, and effectively apply the power and acumen of
emotions as a source of human energy, information, connection, and influence
These definitions are most interesting in that a person could score extremely well on an
intelligence test, but still not meet the criteria of the definitions. For example, often children are referred to a psychologist because the teacher feels that they are
functioning poorly in school. Upon evaluation they may score very high on an intelligence test. Their poor performance at school may have many possible
explanations. For example, they may have emotional problems relative to their home environment that makes it impossible for them to use their intellectual abilities to
function effectively at school. They may find that school is extremely boring, because they understand the material presented and resent the repetition required. If they
have sufficient emotional security, they may ignore threats and bad grades, yet go on to later function at a college level and in adult life in an extremely effective manner.
From a teacher’s perspective Wechsler's definition in combination with Cooper and
Sawaf's definition of emotional intelligence seem to have considerable merit in that, not only does it consider the person’s cognitive ability to perform certain tasks, but also
allows for a consideration of how his emotions and personality affect his cognitive functioning to his environment.
Case Studies Which Illustrate Factors
Which Can Makes a Difference
Since a primary purpose of education is to prepare citizens who will function effectively,
this section will examine the factors that can affect the likelihood of the student succeeding or failing in school and society as a whole. Research and case studies are
used as the vehicle to illustrate these selected factors.
A Knowledge of Test Scores Can Make a Difference
A knowledge of the test score can be helpful or detrimental depending upon the meaning that is placed upon a score. For example, if a teacher discovers that a student has a reading level which is several grades below the grade level of the reading
material of the textbooks this should indicates a need for actions such as: confirming the score is valid by listening to the student read, having a second test administered,
and/or examining the cumulative folder to see if there is a trend of repeated low reading scores. If the score is valid the teacher needs to find how to assist the student in
improving his or her reading and at the same time, modify instruction so the student can learn other subjects being taught despite his or her low reading ability.
Danny, Average Intelligence and all A’s? The following true story illustrates the
potential danger in putting too much weight in a test score. About fifteen years ago, I was approached by one of my high school students who was obtaining straight A’s. He
was very disturbed about the counsel he had received concerning an intelligence test. The young man wished to become a doctor; however, the person counseling him had
indicated that his score on the intelligence tests suggested that he was functioning at his maximum capability. The counselor also indicated that if he attempted to follow a
medical career, he would likely have difficulties and suggested he should consider some kind of work involving less academic aptitude.
The score that he received on the test was inconsistent with my observations of his
functioning in mathematics and physics classes. Upon examining the test manual, I found that the highest correlation with any other test was with a reading test.
Because of the type of reading this student did in mathematics and physics, it was his tendency to read very deliberately and carefully. I discussed this implication with him
and indicated that on an IQ test less dependent upon reading he would probably score much higher and upon further testing, he did score much higher.
Danny took work in physics and mathematics and consistently was one of the top two
or three individuals in his classes. Upon completing two years work at, he went to the University of Michigan. While there, he took a chemistry class with over a thousand
students and was third in rank in his class. His grade point average in electrical engineering was above 3.6 on a four-point scale. After completing a bachelors degree
in electrical engineering, he completed his masters degree and worked as an electrical engineer for several years and spent several years in the army. Since completing his
army service, he has gone to medical school with very high scores, finished a residency, and became a successful medical doctor. Further testing and his later
academic achievements confirms error in the original advice given and points out the danger in using a single test score to draw an conclusion.
Without question, a good working knowledge of test results can make a difference.
The responsibility of teachers and counselors is to do everything possible to assure that the difference will be positive and to work with parents to optimize a students success.
(To be continued in Parts 2-4)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blair, Glenn Myers, R. Stewart Jones, Ray H. Simpson. Educational Psychology. 4th
ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., 1975.
Bowlby, John. Maternal Care and Mental Health. 2d ed. New York: Schocken Books,
1967
Cooper, Robert K. and Sawaf, Ayman. Executive EQ: Emotional Intelligence in
Leadership & Organizations Penguin Putman, Inc. 1997. ISBN 0-339-14294-0
Guilford, J.P. “Intelligence: 1965 Model.” The American Psychologist 21 (1966) : 21.
Skeels, Harold M. “Adult Status of Children with Contrasting Early Life Experiences.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. Vol. 31 (3), No. 105,
1966.
Wechsler, David. Measurement of Adult Intelligence. 3d ed. Baltimore: Williams and
Wilkins, 1944.
|
